History of South and East Asia

Background Information

» Important Definitions

The definition of civilization, like that of many historical terms, varies from source to source. Throughout Essential Humanities, “civilization” simply means “urban culture”. In other words, a culture with at least one city is considered a civilization. Essential Humanities defines the term city as a settlement with a population of at least ten thousand.

The term culture is defined by Essential Humanities as “the distinctive features of a group that are learned rather than biological”. Language, artistic traditions, and religious beliefs all fall under this definition. The primary identifying feature of a culture is often language; in European history, for instance, the Celts were people who spoke Celtic languages, the Greeks were people who spoke Greek, and so on.

» Geography

Greco-Roman culture is the foundation of European civilization. Consequently, all European nations (despite their immense diversity) have much in common, culturally speaking. This situation is not unique to Europe; several other large regions of the world also feature a common cultural foundation. South Asia is united by a foundation of Indian culture, while East Asia is united by a foundation of Chinese culture.

South Asia is a relatively flat region bordered by steep mountain ranges; this region can be divided into a main portion (Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh), an island (Sri LankaPronunciation: sree LONG-kə, shree LONG-kə
click this word to hear it pronounced), and two countries perched in the Himalayas (Nepal and
BhutanPronunciation: boo-TAWN, boo-TAN
click this word to hear it pronounced). (Note that in historical discussion, “India” often denotes all of South Asia, not just the region of modern India.) East Asia consists of China, Mongolia, Japan, and Korea.

The cultural foundation of Southeast Asia is an Indo-Chinese blend. Depending on where one ventures within Southeast Asia, the Indian or Chinese part of this blend may be stronger. Southeast Asia can be divided into three parts: western mainland (Myanmar, Thailand, and mainland Malaysia), eastern mainland (Vietnam, LaosPronunciation: LOUSE
click this word to hear it pronounced, and Cambodia), and maritime (maritime Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines). Mainland Southeast Asia is also known as Indochina.

» Southeast Asia

This article surveys the primary historic powers of South Asia and East Asia. The powers of Southeast Asia are not directly examined, as this region has always been secondary in terms of might and influence. Suffice it to say that various kingdoms (often quite decentralized) rose and fell in the course of Southeast Asian history, ultimately giving rise to the familiar modern nations of this region.

Largest of these kingdoms was the medieval KhmerPronunciation: kə-MEER
click this word to hear it pronounced Empire, which lasted over five centuries and grew to encompass most of Indochina; the greatest Khmer city was AngkorPronunciation: ANG-core
click this word to hear it pronounced, located in what is now Cambodia. During the Early Modern age, most of Southeast Asia was conquered by European powers, with the sole exception of Thailand. Independence was gradually regained during the “age of decolonization” (ca. WWII-1980).

Main Article

» Pre-Modern India

South Asian civilization began with the Indus civilization (2500-1500 BC), which flourished in the region around the Indus River (which runs mainly through Pakistan). It featured two great cities, Mohenjo-DaroPronunciation: moe-HEN-joe DAH-ro
click this word to hear it pronounced and HarappaPronunciation: hə-RA-pə
click this word to hear it pronounced, along with smaller settlements. Both cities were impressively well-planned, featuring orderly grids of roads and extensive drainage systems.3,4

Image credit: MM

The age of Indus civilization is typically dated ca. 2500-1500 BC. In the second half of this period, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa became depopulated, and the Indus culture faded away.64 Urban life thus disappeared from South Asia. Meanwhile, as the Indus civilization declined, Indic nomads began to arrive from the northwest.

Indic is a branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, which is itself a branch of Indo-European (see Indo-European Languages). The Indo-European family emerged in the western Steppe. During the second millennium BC, great migrations of Indo-Europeans caused the family to spread deep into Europe and Asia. The Indo-Iranian branch spread southward, splitting into speakers of Iranian (who settled Central Asia and Iran) and Indic (who migrated into South Asia).10

The extent to which the Indic people wrought violence on the Indus civilization is uncertain. It is clear, however, that the two peoples lived side-by-side for a significant period of time. During this period, the Indic people absorbed much of the Indus civilization’s culture (e.g. artistic style, iconography, religious beliefs).11,13,64

The age of Indus civilization was followed by the VedicPronunciation: VAY-dik
click this word to hear it pronounced period (ca. 1500-500 BC). The early part of this period featured great waves of Indic immigrants, who spread across northern India. During the late Vedic period, these immigrants gradually abandoned nomadism for settled agricultural life. Their settlements grew into cities, thus restoring urban life to South Asia.11

The Indic people arrived via gaps in the northwest mountain ranges that separate South Asia from Central Asia. This was the only land route by which South Asia could be invaded. The remainder of South Asia’s border is sealed by continuous mountains (including the Himalayas), thus precluding invasion by China or Southeast Asian powers.A61

The Vedic period was the formative age of Indian culture; by ca. 500 BC, Indian culture had matured.A181 Among the most prominent features of this culture are three religions, all of which emerged toward the end of the Vedic period: Hinduism, BuddhismPronunciation: BUH-di-zəm, BOO-di-zəm
click this word to hear it pronounced, and JainismPronunciation: JYE-ni-zəm
click this word to hear it pronounced (see Religion). Another familiar aspect of Indian culture is the castePronunciation: KAST
click this word to hear it pronounced system, which continues to exist in much of modern-day India. Under this system, one is born into a specific “caste”, which determines one’s social position and occupation.A66 While this system was embraced by Hinduism, it was rejected by Buddhism and Jainism.

It should be noted that the maturation of Indian culture occurred specifically in northern India; additional centuries were required for this culture to spread across southern South Asia.A66 While northern India was settled by the Indic people, the south remained populated by its original inhabitants, the Dravidians (who spoke DravidianPronunciation: drə-VIH-dee-ən
click this word to hear it pronounced languages; this language family remains predominant in modern-day southern India). Once the Dravidians had embraced Indian culture, they protected it fiercely against subsequent invaders.

The Vedic period was succeeded by the Indian kingdom age (ca. 500 BC-1200 AD), which was the age of mature, independent Indian civilization. During this period, South Asia was generally covered in a patchwork of Indian kingdoms (hence the name of the period), as opposed to being united by a single great Indian empire.

Throughout the Indian kingdom age, states of exceptional size emerged only twice: the Mauryan Empire (ca. 300-200 BC) and the Gupta Empire (ca. 300-500).7 The former was the largest empire ever seen in South Asia prior to the British conquest. The latter, which witnessed an exceptional flourishing of arts and scholarship, is often considered India’s “golden age” of traditional culture.3

The Indian kingdom age featured a dramatic religious transition. Bearing in mind that this transition was a centuries-long process, the following generalization can be made: during the first half of the Indian kingdom age, Buddhism was the dominant religion of India; during the second half, the dominant religion was Hinduism.L47 (This shift was permanent; Hinduism has remained the majority faith of India ever since.) By the time Buddhism faded from India, however, it had been carried far and wide by traders, settlers, and missionaries (notably to Sri Lanka, Indochina, and parts of East Asia, where it continues to thrive today).

The Indian kingdom age was followed by the Islamic age of India, which lasted ca. 1200-1800. It began with the early Islamic period (ca. 1200-1500), during which north India was dominated by a patchwork of Islamic states, while south India featured both Islamic and Hindu states. The early Islamic period began with the rise (ca. 1200) of the DelhiPronunciation: DEH-lee
click this word to hear it pronounced SultanatePronunciation: SULL-tən-ayt, SULL-tən-ət
click this word to hear it pronounced, the first Islamic state in South Asia. For most of its history, the Delhi Sultanate was only the most powerful of several Islamic states in north India, though at one point it did briefly swell to encompass most of India.K244-45

Image credit: Javierfv1212 (modified by Essential Humanities)

The Islamic states of South Asia were established by invaders from Central Asia. Ethnically and culturally speaking, these invaders embodied various blends of Iranian, Turkic, and Mongolic. Such mixtures emerged in Central Asia following the age of the CaliphatePronunciation: KA-lə-fət, KA-lə-fayt, KAY-lə-fət, KAY-lə-fayt
click this word to hear it pronounced (ca. 650-900), due to waves of invasions (first Turkic, then Mongolic) into Iranian territory.

While South Asia remained politically fragmented during the early Islamic period, the late Islamic period featured a single great power: the MughalPronunciation: MOO-gəl Empire (ca. 1500-1800), the only Islamic state to achieve lasting control over most of South Asia.9 Indeed, the strength of the Mughal Empire (aka MogulPronunciation: MOE-gəl
click this word to hear it pronounced Empire) was such that European imperialism was impeded for centuries. Only when civil conflict (caused largely by aggressive Islamic efforts to convert the Hindu population) sent the empire into decline did Britain extend its control over India.A277,3

Image credit: Gabagool

Throughout the long Islamic period, Hinduism stubbornly retained its position as the predominant religion of India. Only two large areas of South Asia became majority Islamic: the far northwest (now Pakistan) and the far northeast (now Bangladesh).11 Missionaries and traders also carried Islam to Southeast Asia, where it met with exceptional success in Indonesia (which remains majority Islamic today).

» Pre-Modern China

In historical discussion, “China” refers mainly to the eastern half of modern China. This region, pierced by the great Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, is the heartland of Chinese civilization. Only late in Chinese history was the western part of the nation firmly acquired.

Eastern China is also a temperate, forested region. This makes it far more hospitable to civilization than the western half of the country, most of which is covered by the mountainous Tibetan Plateau (the world’s largest and highest plateau). The Himalayan mountain range, which runs along the southern border of the Tibetan Plateau, serves as a formidable natural boundary between China and South Asia. The Plateau is covered mostly in tundra, while lands to the north (i.e. northern China and Mongolia) feature desert and dry grassland (see Climates and Biomes).

Image credit: Sten Porse (modified by Essential Humanities)

Civilization in East Asia began ca. 2000 BC, with the rise of the city of Erlitou by the Yellow River.54 The culture that flourished at this city (and peripheral settlements) is known as the Erlitou civilization. It is uncertain whether this marks the birth of Chinese civilization.

Image credit: Koryakov Yuri et al. (modified by Essential Humanities)

The oldest historical dynasty of China is the Shang dynasty, which began ca. 1600 BC. It is “historical” in that written records of the dynasty’s activities have been confirmed by archaeological evidence; thus, the history of the state of China definitely extends back to at least 1600 BC. Written records also claim that the Shang were preceded by the Xia dynasty, which spanned ca. 2000-1600 BC. This period roughly matches the lifespan of the Erlitou civilization.

Consequently, it has been proposed that the “Erlitou civilization” was simply the first age of the Chinese state, ruled by the Xia dynasty. Physical evidence for this claim is scarce, however; Erlitou may have been a distinct state that preceded China. Regardless, Erlitou civilization should be included in a summary of Chinese history, as it exerted strong cultural influence on the Shang dynasty.

The resilience of the Chinese state is truly remarkable. Time and again, the nation was torn apart by civil war, peasant revolt, and foreign invasion, and every time it recovered and prospered once again. Invaders came from only one place: the Eurasian Steppe (see History of the Steppe).A76,14

Chinese history may be divided into ancient, medieval, and modern periods. The ancient period was the formative age of Chinese civilization; in other words, it was during this period that China grew into a strong, well-organized state, and the core elements of Chinese culture developed. These elements include the Chinese writing system, Confucianism and Daoism, and a professional, merit-based civil service.14,16,23

Confucianism became the most influential school of philosophy in China (and has remained so ever since). Though not a religion, it has served an equivalent role in China (by providing a body of guidelines for living). Confucianism is primarily concerned with social order: it assigns everyone a rank within a social hierarchy (including within the family) and prescribes duties for each rank, as well as rules for interaction between and within ranks.A75

Confucianism fosters a deep-set commitment to the preservation of traditional ways and obedience to one’s “betters” in the social hierarchy. It could therefore be argued that, while effective for maintaining political and social order and stability, Confucianism inhibits progress. Innovation is discouraged, foreign ideas are rejected, and questioning of authority is unthinkable.A75-76,A203,A483-85

Another key feature of Chinese civilization was an extremely powerful, merit-based civil service. Civil servants were rewarded with generous salaries and staff, and were considered to occupy the second tier of Chinese society (beneath the royal family). Thanks to competitive evaluations (for admissions and promotions) and anti-nepotism laws, corruption was a minor problem, at least in times of peace and stability.A196

Competitive evaluations were based primarily on written exams that tested knowledge of Confucian texts. This ensured that a strong Confucianist outlook was maintained throughout the entire civil service. Perhaps this is the secret to China’s longevity: though often torn apart by invasion or civil war, the civil service (unified by the ideals of Confucianism) was always there to put it back together and restore traditional society.A75,A194-96

The ancient period began with three long dynasties: Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou. Throughout these dynasties, Chinese union was only loosely achieved. The Western Zhou dynasty was succeeded by a long period of civil war.

Civil strife was finally ended by the Qin dynasty, which lasted less than two decades. It was succeeded by the much longer Han dynasty, under which China finally became a strongly unified state, and Chinese civilization emerged in its fully mature form.A69,19,48 (Given the brevity of the Qin dynasty, it is omitted from the timeline at the beginning of this section.)

Starting with the Han dynasty, and continuing throughout the medieval period, Chinese technological progress was unmatched anywhere in the world. Gunpowder, paper, the compass, the mechanical clock, and the blast furnace were all invented in China, centuries before they came into use by Europeans.A193 Indeed, gunpowder and paper (to take two key examples) were invented exclusively by China.

The Han dynasty was followed by another long, politically-fractured age, which occupied the remainder of antiquity and stretched into the medieval period. China was finally reunited by the Sui dynasty, which lasted only decades. It was followed by the much longer Tang dynasty. (The Sui dynasty is also omitted from the timeline at the beginning of this section.)

The Tang dynasty and its successor, the Song dynasty, are often together considered the golden age of Chinese art. In particular, this age witnessed the culmination of Chinese painting, ceramics, and poetry. It also witnessed the diffusion of Chinese culture to Korea and Japan, thus adding those regions to the sphere of East Asian civilization.29

China fell completely under foreign rule for the first time when it was conquered by the Mongol Empire (ca. 1200-1300). When this occurred, the capital of the Mongol Empire was moved to China, and the Mongol emperor took on the additional role of Chinese emperor. Thus began the Yuan dynasty (aka Mongol dynasty). By the time China had been conquered, however, the Mongol Empire was on the verge of falling apart; when this happened (ca. 1300), the Yuan dynasty’s power became limited to China and Mongolia.

Native Chinese rule resumed with the Ming dynasty, which carried China into the modern period. Together, the Ming and Qing dynasties comprise China’s great imperial age, characterized by unprecedented prosperity, stability, and expansion of population and territory.49,50 The Ming moved the Chinese capital to Beijing (where it has remained), at the heart of which they built the Forbidden City (a palace complex which served as the centre of Chinese government throughout the Ming/Qing period).

It should be noted that by this time, China had developed a strong commercial naval presence in the waters of Southeast Asia. Chinese voyages seeking trade (or demanding tribute) plied this region, and even ventured westward as far as Arabia and East Africa. Yet unlike Europe, China showed no interest in overseas conquest or colonization.A203,K238-39

Another mysterious feature of China’s imperial age is the seizing-up of technological progress. As noted earlier, China was the clear technological leader of the medieval world. Yet in the modern age, Chinese invention stagnated, while Europe entered a permanent state of rapid scientific progress.

This dramatic historic reversal may be explained by the exceptional conservatism that emerged in the late Ming dynasty and persisted throughout the Qing dynasty. This conservatism included a policy of extreme isolationism, in which most international trade and travel was prohibited; consequently, the aforementioned merchant navy was dismantled. Although China was already resistant to foreign ideas, this degree of isolationism virtually guaranteed that European advances would remain unknown in China. (Meanwhile, Europe eagerly adopted any foreign advances it could find, including those of China.)

Perhaps the sheer prosperity and stability of the Ming/Qing period was also detrimental to technological progress. In a Confucianist society, stable conditions are ideal for the strict maintenance of tradition. Arguably, only an environment of conflict and uncertainty can interrupt this tradition sufficiently to generate innovation.

The Qing dynasty (aka Manchu dynasty) was China’s second period of foreign rule. The Manchu are the native people of Manchuria; today, they constitute an ethnic minority within China.27 Although the Qing brought China to new heights of peace and prosperity, this dynasty eventually declined to overpopulation, famine, and government corruption and apathy, leaving the nation vulnerable to European imperialism. The culmination of this decline was the Taiping Rebellion, the bloodiest civil conflict in history.B283,26

» Japan and Korea

The history of Korea will be given only the briefest of treatments here. Beginning in ancient times, various kingdoms emerged in this region. Starting with the Han dynasty, China intermittently fought with these kingdoms, sometimes gaining partial control of the Korean peninsula. Multiple kingdoms ruled Korea until the late medieval period, when the peninsula was united as a single state (Choson). This state endured until the Second World War, after which the peninsula was divided into North and South Korea.56

The emergence of a Japanese kingdom did not occur until the early medieval period, when the Yamato clan achieved loose control over the region of present-day Japan. As Chinese influence radiated from the west, the Yamato chief adopted the title of emperor, and a Chinese-style bureaucratic government was established.31 The actual governing power of the Japanese emperor would never rival that of his Chinese counterpart, however.

In terms of protection from hostile foreigners, geography was kind to Japan. Whereas China and Korea endured frequent invasions by Steppe nomads, Japan experienced only two. Both were attempted by the Mongols during the Mongol Empire period, and both were repelled.A209,A275

Ca. 800, the emperor became a figurehead as power was usurped by royal officials, especially members of the Fujiwara clan. (All emperors from this point forward in Japanese history are figureheads.) The era of Fujiwara rule, known as the Heian period (ca. 800-1200), is considered the classical age of Japanese art.31

The Heian period ended in civil war.30 It was succeeded by the shogunate (ca. 1200-1870), a military dictatorship whose leader was called the shogun.43 The shogun’s actual ruling power was often quite limited, however. For most of the shogunate period, Japan was torn apart by civil war between independent regions, each ruled by local captains and their soldiers.31

The shogunate, like Ming/Qing China, banned virtually all contact (including trade) with the outside world. This plunged Japan into centuries of isolation. As in China, the ruling elite was determined to maintain stability and order, to which the outside world was perceived as a serious threat.A275,B211

As noted above, most of the shogunate period was characterized by civil war. The final phase of this period, however, was the Tokugawa dynasty, which brought over two centuries of Japanese union (i.e. strong centralized government) and peace. The Tokugawa period, sometimes referred to as the “Great Peace”, featured vibrant economic growth despite Japan’s isolation.A274,K242-43

In the mid-19th century, Japan’s destiny was changed forever when it was forced (by the United States) to open trade relations with the West (which were conducted under trade agreements unfavourable to Japan). Soon after this traumatic event, the shogun was deposed by an oligarchy of nobles (i.e. clan leaders) who sent Japan on a path of rapid modernization, military build-up, and expansionism. (This contrasts sharply with China, which would not embrace modernization for some decades.)

The ensuing period may be termed the imperial age of Japan (ca. 1870-WWII).A392-3,30 An early victory was the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), in which Japan battled Russia for control of Manchuria and Korea. This victory came as a surprise to the world, and announced Japan’s rise as a great power.3

Japan fought with the Allies in World War I. During the interwar period, the nation prepared to assemble a massive Pacific empire; allying with Germany and Italy, it attempted to build this empire during WWII (see World War II).3 After the war, Japan was subject to American occupation, which was withdrawn only gradually; nonetheless, Japan remained a US ally during the Cold War.30

Japan became a democracy after the Second World War. It also achieved a tremendous postwar economic recovery.42 As of 2010, it was the world’s third-largest economy.

» Modern India

The Modern age in India began with the British conquest of South Asia; de facto British rule of South Asia lasted ca. 1800-WWII. As the era of British occupation drew on, vigorous independence movements (both Hindu and Muslim) developed. The best-known figure of these struggles is Mohandas Gandhi, who emerged as a Hindu independence leader during the interwar period.3

After World War II, the independent nations of India and Pakistan were established (the former chiefly Hindu, the latter chiefly Muslim); Pakistan included the region of Bangladesh, which later seceded. Unfortunately, hundreds of thousands were killed in the course of mass migrations (as many Hindus moved from Pakistan to India, and many Muslims did the opposite) and riots. The (chiefly Muslim) region of Kashmir remains disputed by India and Pakistan.K410-11,2

India became a democracy, and remained neutral in the Cold War. It has experienced vibrant growth ever since, and now stands among the world’s top ten economies.3,7

» Modern China

Unlike South Asia, China was never added to a European empire. In the nineteenth century, however, China faced the same inescapable fate as Japan, as European powers (especially Britain) forced the nation to open trade relations (under terms unfavourable to China). By this time, China’s exports to the Western world were flowing mainly to Britain (especially tea). After the fall of the shogunate, China also had to contend with Japanese expansionism.K240-41,15

When the Qing dynasty was finally overthrown, a nominal republic (actually a dictatorship) was established, although its governing power was limited by internal dissent and a rival communist party. This Republic of China spanned roughly the interwar period. The country became sharply divided during this period, as the government maintained popularity in the cities but faced a surging tide of rural unrest, due to neglect and mistreatment of the peasantry.A447-48,15,40

For several years after World War II, war raged within China between the Republic government and the aforementioned communist party; this struggle is known as the Chinese Civil War. The communists ultimately won, largely by garnering peasant support via promises of land redistribution. They subsequently established the current Chinese government: the People’s Republic of China (also a dictatorship). The ousted republic government took refuge on Taiwan (along with some two million supporters), which it continues to govern to this day.K424-25 (The term “Republic of China” now denotes Taiwan.)

The leader of the communist party was Mao Zedong, who ruled China until the 1970s.45 Although his reign was incredibly brutal, Mao remained in power until his death from natural causes.

China thus became a Cold War enemy of the United States (see Cold War). Yet while Chinese relations with the USSR were initially strong, they quickly deteriorated, leaving China in the unique position of being a communist Cold War nation outside the Soviet sphere. Two main factors in this deterioration may be identified: imperial rivalry and disagreement over Marxist policy. The first factor is evident enough: Russia had been eroding Chinese territory for centuries.A482

The disagreement over Marxist policy requires a more detailed explanation. Marxism is a political theory that argues that capitalist governments will eventually be overthrown by the working class, who will establish a “dictatorship of the proletariat” (see Marxism). This dictatorship will proceed to transform the nation into a communist state (in which there is no government: everything is owned in common, and all production and distribution is conducted according to ability and need).

The USSR was the first country to put this theory into practice; this nation’s approach to Marxism is often referred to as orthodox Marxism (or “Leninism”, or “Marxism-Leninism”). According to this approach, cities (as opposed to rural areas) are the driving force behind the creation of a communist state. Therefore, one prerequisite to communism is a large urban working class, which means that a Marxist nation must pursue rapid industrialization.A482-83

Orthodox Marxism does not prescribe the elimination of bureaucracy, however. While the “dictatorship of the proletariat” is overseen by the working class, the administration of this dictatorship is carried out by a bureaucracy of highly-educated intellectuals.A482-84,51

At first, Mao’s government embraced orthodox Marxism, and consequently enjoyed a rich flow of Soviet funding and technological expertise. Before long, however, Mao alienated Russia by shifting to a starkly different vision of the path to communism. This unorthodox version of Marxism is known as Maoism. It was attempted mainly in Mao-era China, although it did diffuse somewhat to Southeast Asia (where it mingled with the orthodox Soviet approach).A482-84,44

Mao had watched as Soviet Marxism, despite its lofty stated intentions, gave rise to widespread government corruption and economic stagnation. This contributed to his view that intellectuals and bureaucrats cannot be trusted, as they are only interested in seizing power for themselves. Indeed, he came to believe that political or economic centralization would generally result in corruption and poor economic growth.A482-84,44,46

Consequently, Mao argued that the true force for communist reform lay in the country rather than the city. This view was likely largely driven by the political division of China (which, as noted earlier, consisted of rural support for the communists and urban support for the Republic). Instead of urban workers and intellectual-bureaucrats, Mao argued that the communist transition would be led by the Chinese peasantry, guided by their simple rural wisdom (and Mao’s enlightened rule).46

Mao first put his views into action with the Great Leap Forward, a several-year program implemented ca. 1960. It was intended to generate massive economic growth via rapid decentralization, including communal farms and peasant-run small-scale industry. One infamous example of the latter is Mao’s plan for national steel production, which was to be achieved in thousands of tiny backyard furnaces. Apart from being massively unrealistic, the Great Leap Forward was poorly and hastily implemented, ultimately begetting a terrible famine that killed tens of millions.A482,45

The other principal event of Mao’s reign was the Cultural Revolution, which spanned his final ten years in office.46 It was essentially a massive campaign of violence against intellectuals, bureaucrats, and political rivals, which resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths and millions imprisoned (and often subject to forced agricultural labour) or driven from the country. Universities were shut down, traditional and foreign art and literature were widely destroyed, and Mao’s personal writings became compulsory study material.A483,47

Although China has remained a dictatorship since the age of Mao, state control of the economy has been relaxed, allowing for foreign investment and the privatization of much industry.40 Consequently, China’s economy has taken a dramatic upturn. Indeed, China now boasts the second-largest economy in the world.

In the late twentieth century, four Asian nations apart from the three giants (Japan, China, and India) achieved extraordinary economic growth and development.3 These so-called Asian Tigers are South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. (While actually part of China, Hong Kong is largely autonomous, and is thus often discussed as though it were independent.) In the view of the IMF, the Asian Tigers are the only countries in East/South/Southeast Asia apart from Japan to reach “developed” status.52

Sources Cited